Private tutoring—supplementary, out-of-school instruction offered at a fee to individuals or groups—represents a substantial household expenditure, even in

In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students' achievement, but

Private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education because of the way that it mimics mainstream schooling, has greatly expanded worldwide. It cons

The private tuitions, earlier a scarce commodity with relatively less presence, have today transitioned to a new hybrid model with marked, subtle presence in Ma

The so-called shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring has become a global phenomenon but has different features in different settings. This bo